Forests, fire, and fish: Policy pathways to manage forests for wildfire resilience, salmon recovery, and watershed security

https://doi.org/10.70766/4781.87

Citation

Walters K. 2025. Forests, fire, and fish: Policy pathways to manage forests for wildfire resilience, salmon recovery, and watershed security. Raincoast Conservation Foundation. DOI: 10.70766/4781.87

Full report (PDF)

Acknowledgements

We gratefully acknowledge Raincoast Conservation Foundation staff Misty MacDuffee, Auston Chhor, Allison Dennert, and Priya Puri for providing editorial support in the preparation of this report. We also thank Rheanne Kroschinsky from the University of British Columbia Okanagan, for contributing feedback, and to Theresa Lubowitz of Lightbulb Narrative, for copyediting. Photos by Alex Harris. 

Executive summary

As a high-latitude nation, Canada is warming at more than twice the global average (Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2019). This trend is driving higher temperatures, reduced precipitation (Bush and Lemmon, 2019), prolonged droughts, and increased lightning frequency (Romps et al., 2014). In British Columbia, industrial forestry practices have reshaped forest ecosystems. Clear-cut logging, the removal of old-growth trees, and the suppression of broadleaf vegetation have resulted in homogenous, even-aged stands with little species diversity. Coupled with over a century of fire exclusion, landscapes across British Columbia have high fuel loads and reduced ecological resilience, making them increasingly prone to high-severity wildfires.

Wild Pacific salmon are foundational to ecosystems across British Columbia and have adapted to fire regimes over their evolutionary history. Pacific salmon, and aquatic ecosystems more broadly, can experience both positive and negative effects from wildfire through modifications to habitat complexity, streamflow, and water temperature. However, contemporary fire regimes that are characterized by more frequent, intense, and severe wildfires may exceed their adaptive capacity. Exacerbating this challenge is a suite of cumulative effects that interact across multiple scales, including: increased marine and freshwater temperatures, habitat loss and degradation, barriers to fish passage, fisheries exploitation, and fish farm and hatchery interactions. Collectively, these stressors undermine recovery and make the viability of some salmon populations uncertain in a hotter, drier climate.

Forests, fire, and fish: Policy pathways to manage forests for wildfire resilience, salmon recovery, and watershed security.

Forests, fire, and fish: Policy pathways to manage forests for wildfire resilience, salmon recovery, and watershed security

October 7, 2025

Report (PDF)

Purpose and scope

Academic and public discourse in Canada on fire ecology and shifting fire regimes has largely focused on terrestrial ecosystems, with limited attention to their effects on freshwater systems. Yet, wildfires can have implications for hydrology, drinking water, flood control, and at-risk groups of species such as Pacific salmon. To address this gap, we conducted a review of peer-reviewed literature and technical reports examining how industrial forestry, fire exclusion, and anthropogenic climate change interact to drive increasingly severe and frequent wildfires. We also identify how these shifts affect hydrologic function, freshwater habitats, and fish populations. This report is intended to be a comprehensive resource for decision-makers, forestry and wildfire professionals, researchers, and restoration practitioners addressing these cumulative effects in British Columbia.

Recommendations

Based on the literature reviewed, we provide evidence-based recommendations to enhance species diversity and age heterogeneity in forests, stabilize and restore watershed hydrology, and increase the quality of salmon habitat before and after wildfires. These recommendations span policy and legislative reform, increased support for Indigenous Guardian programs, and investments in research and habitat restoration. Here, we have provided a snapshot of these recommendations. Full details can be found in the report. 

  1. Support cultural burning and Indigenous Guardian programs. Achieving resilient landscapes requires enhancing the decision-making authority of First Nations in wildfire governance. This approach will support long-term, place-based, and cross-jurisdictional partnerships by providing structural and financial resources to Indigenous communities (Copes-Gerbitz et al. 2022). To achieve this, we recommend:
    • Increased and sustained funding for cultural burning and Indigenous Guardian programs to enable Indigenous Fire Stewardship at the landscape-scale. 
    • Increasing the amount of beneficial fire on the landscape. 
    • Upholding the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) and aligning forestry legislation with the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples Act (DRIPA). This includes amendments to the Forest and Range Practices Act (SBC 2002, c. 69)(FRPA), and the Forest Planning and Practices Regulation (B.C. Reg. 14/2004)(FPPR) to support the above recommendations. 
  2. Protect remaining old-growth forests. The landmark 2020 report A New Future for Old Forests: A Strategic Review of How British Columbia Manages for Old Forests Within its Ancient Ecosystems recommended the immediate deferral of logging in the most at-risk old-growth forests and called for comprehensive legislative reforms. This call for a paradigm shift is supported by research that demonstrates clear-cut logging in mature forests decreases streamflow (Coble et al., 2020), increases flood risk (Green and Alila, 2012; Johnson and Alila, 2023) and elevates wildfire risk and severity (Levine et al., 2025). Currently, regulation-based deferrals for old-growth under FRPA (2002) are temporary, intended only to pause or restrict harvesting until further planning, assessment, or regulatory review is completed. To provide lasting protection, we recommend implementing permanent moratorium mechanisms through the following:
    • Expanding or designating new provincial parks, conservancies, and ecological reserves under the Park Act (RSBC 1996, c. 344), the Protected Areas of British Columbia Act (RSBC 2000, c. 8), and the Ecological Reserve Act (RSBC 1996, c. 103).
    • Increasing the number and size of legally designated Old Growth Management Areas under FRPA (2002) and FPPR (2004). 
    • Implementing Crown land designations under the Land Act (1996) as Special Purpose Areas/No Harvest Zones. 
  3. Transition from clear-cut logging and plantation forestry. While clearcutting maximizes short-term fibre supply and profit, the selection silvicultural system can provide more fibre yield over the long term by maintaining forest productivity. The preferred variation of this system is single-tree selection, which harvests individual trees across all age classes evenly throughout the stand to maintain a balanced age structure (British Columbia Ministry of Forests, 2025b). This approach differs fundamentally from selective logging (or highgrading), which targets only the most valuable species or trees of  desirable size and quality, which degrades stand structure over time. By contrast, single-tree selection better aligns timber management with wildfire risk reduction and hydrological objectives. Accordingly, we recommend transitioning the predominant silvicultural method from clear-cutting to the selection system through the following:
    • Amending FRPA (2002), Part 2, Division 1, s.8 and the FPPR (2004), Part 2, Division 1, s.9 to require the selection system as the dominant silvicultural system in Forest Stewardship Plans. 
    • Amending FRPA (2002) Part 1.1, Division 1, s. 2.28 to require Forest Landscape Plans to establish landscape-level objectives that guide Forest Stewardship Plans in the use of the selection system to achieve objectives for species diversity, structural complexity, and age-class heterogeneity.
  4. Remove the free-growing milestone. The free-growing milestone under the Forest and Range Practices Act (FRPA, 2002) is a regulatory benchmark used to determine when a reforested stand has been successfully regenerated. It ensures that commercially valuable trees meet minimum legal requirements for height, stocking, and spacing, which signals compliance with reforestation obligations. Further, reforested stands cannot contain more than 5% broadleaf vegetation, despite the evidence that mixed forests are more resistant to pests and disease (Morrison et al. 2001; Woods, 2003), and can reduce the vigour of wildfire behaviour (Alexander, 2010). To achieve landscape heterogeneity, we recommend:
    • Amending Part 4, Division 2, s.44 of the FPPR to remove the free-growing stocking standards and replace them with reforestation metrics for both Forest Stewardship Plans and Forest Landscape Plans that are ecosystem-based. These objectives must reflect natural species composition, age-class distribution, and structural complexity. Forest Landscape Plans should set landscape-scale targets and guide Forest Stewardship Plans to implement them at the operational level.
  5. Transition from the industrial model to community forests. In BC, a Community Forest Agreement grants local governments, First Nations, or community groups rights to manage Crown land for the benefit of the community. These tenures operate under FRPA (2002) and FPPR (2004), which can limit the ability of community forests to manage for ecological or social objectives if they conflict with timber production regulations. Shifting away from the industrial forestry model is essential to reduce the risk of high-severity wildfire and secure community drinking water—yet current provincial policy fails to adequately recognize or integrate these interconnected priorities. To facilitate the transition to community forests, we recommend:
    • Amending FRPA (2002) Part 1, s.1 to explicitly define and recognize community forests as a distinct tenure type with rights and obligations. Clarify that community forests have the authority to implement multi-objective, site-specific forest management practices that prioritize watershed security and wildfire resilience without risking non-compliance.
    • Increasing provincial funding for technical training, planning tools, and ecological monitoring for community forests to enable community economic and social benefits from ecosystem-based timber harvesting. 
    • Remove barriers to local value-added processing that prevent timber from community forests from being milled and processed at small- to medium-scale facilities. 
  6. Reform salvage logging practices. Salvage logging has often been promoted as a tool for mitigating wildfire risk. However, research indicates it can increase fire risk in the first five years after logging, particularly when salvage logged fire zones are replanted as conifer plantations (Thompson et al., 2007). While salvage logging may provide short-term economic returns, it can compromise critical ecosystem services that communities rely upon, such as drinking water, flood regulation, and the viability of culturally and economically important species. Prioritizing ecological values, however, does not preclude all harvesting. To achieve a balanced approach to salvage logging, we recommend:
    • Amending the FPPR (2004) Part 4, Division 5, s.64 to remove the exception for salvage harvesting operations, which currently exempts them from maximum cutblock size limits (40 hectares in the Interior, 60 hectares on the Coast).
    • Amending FPPR (2004) Part 4, Division 5, s. 64 to prohibit the use of clearcutting in salvage logging operations. Alternative silvicultural systems that maintain structural complexity and ecological function, such as the single-tree selection system, should be used. This will enable the retention of snags and coarse woody debris that are required to support wildlife habitat, hydrological function, and nutrient cycling.
  7. Provide Riparian Reserve Zone protection to small streams. Under the FPPR (2004), riparian protections prioritize large, fish-bearing streams while minimizing safeguards for small, non-fish-bearing headwater systems. Riparian habitat adjacent to streams is designated as the Riparian Reserve Zone, where no harvest can occur, and the Riparian Management Zone, where some harvesting (including salvage logging) can occur. Small headwater streams currently receive little to no Riparian Reserve Zone protection, despite their critical role in supplying water, sediment, organic matter, and nutrients to downstream fish-bearing systems.
    • Amending the FPPR (2004) Part 4, Division 3, s.51 to provide Riparian Reserve Zones for S4-S6 streams, despite their current non-fish-bearing designation. The minimum Riparian Reserve Zone width should be 20 metres to align with protection given to S3 (small fish-bearing streams).
    • Amending the FPPR (2004) Part 4, Division 3, s.52 to prohibit all logging activities in Riparian Management Zones following wildfire events, except for emergency hazard tree removal or other safety-related interventions. 
  8. Conduct research and watershed restoration. Although British Columbia is home to nearly 400 distinct populations of wild Pacific salmon, research on the interactions between forestry, wildfire, and aquatic species remains limited in Canada. Most existing studies have been conducted in the United States on varying forest types and aquatic species that do not fully represent ecosystems in British Columbia. To fill this gap, we recommend:
    • Conducting targeted research on these topics in salmon-bearing watersheds across British Columbia’s biogeoclimatic zones to understand changing fire regimes and fire effects on aquatic ecosystems in different forest types and under different silvicultural systems. 
    • Measuring population-level responses to wildfires at varying intensities and severities, where possible. 
    • Translating research into decision-making tools for Forest Landscape Plans, Community Wildfire Resilience Plans, and salmon recovery initiatives.
    • Prioritizing science-for-policy pathways to ensure research guides legislation, regulations, and operational planning.
    • Increasing the scale of funding available for pre-and post-wildfire habitat restoration in salmon-bearing watersheds.

Key takeaways

While wildfire is a critical ecological process, the intensity and severity are increasing due to the cumulative effects of industrial forestry practices, a century of fire suppression and exclusion of cultural burning, and anthropogenic climate change. Recent wildfire seasons in Canada highlight the urgent need to shift forestry practices to increase wildfire resilience, stabilize hydrology, and advance the recovery of wild salmon populations. This report provides a comprehensive overview of the knowledge, tools, and policy pathways needed to achieve this vision. The path forward requires translating this knowledge into collaborative, coordinated action amongst First Nations, industry, and communities, supported by political will from the provincial government.

Forests fire fish reportDownload

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